The history of the Korean nation began in Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula when people started settling there 700,000 years ago. Representative historic sites associated with the Paleolithic Age, when people made tools of animal horns and chipped stone tools, include the Komun Moru ruins in Sangwon, Pyeongannam-do, the Jeongok-ri Site in Yeoncheon, Gyeonggi-do, the Seokjangri Prehistory Site in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do, and the Durubong Cave Site in Cheongju, Chungcheongbuk-do. The early inhabitants of the peninsula survived by hunting animals and collecting edible plants in groups.

In Korea, the Neolithic Age began around 8,000 BCE. People started farming, cultivating cereals such as millet, and used polished stone tools. They started settling down permanently in places and formed clan societies. One of the most representative features of the Neolithic Age is comb-patterned pottery, examples of which have been found all across the Korean Peninsula, including in Amsadong, Seoul, in Namgyeong, Pyongyang, and in Suga-ri, Gimhae.

The Bronze Age started around the 10th century BCE on the Korean Peninsula and the 15th century BCE in Manchuria. Historic sites associated with the Bronze Age are found in Liaoning and Jilin provinces, China and across the Korean Peninsula. With the development of the Bronze Age culture, a society emerged in which the head of a clan exercised great influence. The strongest clan leaders started merging many clans into one, and these groups very gradually developed into early states.

The tribes that played a central role in the establishment of Gojoseon, which emerged as the first recognizable state of the Korean people, believed in the King of Heaven and worshipped bears, respectively. The two factions jointly upheld Dangun Wanggeom as their chief priest and political leader. Gojoseon fostered an independent culture in Liaoning, China and along the Daedonggang River. By the 3rd century BCE, kings such as King Bu and King Jun had become powerful and bequeathed the throne to their sons. They established a solid system of rule, backed by high-ranking retainers and military officers.

Towards the end of the 3rd century, the Qin dynasty was replaced by the Han dynasty in China, creating a period of social upheaval. Many people moved southward to Gojoseon. Their leader, Wiman, acceded to the throne in 194 BCE and Gojoseon expanded its territory under his rule. By this time, Gojoseon had adopted Iron Age culture, developed agriculture and various handicrafts, and increased its military strength. It tried to monopolize profits, while serving as an intermediate in the trade between the Korean Peninsula and China, taking advantage of its geographical proximity to China. This led to confrontation between Gojoseon and the Han dynasty. Han attacked Gojoseon with a large number of ground and naval forces. Gojoseon defiantly resisted the attack and won a great victory in the early stage of the war, but its capital at Wanggeomseong Fortress fell after a year of war, and Gojoseon collapsed in 108 BCE.

Dolmen

The Seven Wonders of the World include sites such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Great Wall of China, and Stonehenge in England among others. However, Korea’s dolmens are no less mysterious. About half of all the dolmens in the world or around 40,000 dolmens have been found on the Korea Peninsula.

Diverse artifacts, including human bones, stone objects, and jade and bronze artifacts, have been unearthed from the dolmens. The construction methods are hard to guess, and the existence itself still remains a mystery.

The dolmens are classified into table-type and go-board dolmens, depending on their shape. The former, mainly found in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, was made by positioning four stones to make the walls of a box, which were then capped by a stone lying on top of the supports. The latter is characterized by underground burial with stones that supported the capstone. They are often seen in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula.

Dolmens are often referred to as tombs, but it is difficult to conclude that they are. Yi Gyu-bo, a great scholar of Goryeo in the 12th century, left the following remarks about dolmens: “People say that the saints put the dolmens there in the olden days. It is indeed a wonderful technique (that enabled men to position such huge rocks in that way).”

In the early 20th century, American missionary Horace Grant Underwood claimed that dolmens were not tombs but rather that they were put there for sacrificial rituals offered to the gods of the earth. Korean folklorist Son Jin-tae claimed it was an altar pointing to a folktale in which dolmens were believed to be the houses of witches (Mago halmeoni in local legends).

Dolmens are rarely found in China, except for Manchuria, or Japan, yet many thousands of them can be seen across the Korean Peninsula. They were erected over many thousands of years, but this process stopped sometime before the Common Era.

As this became known, scholars around the world are paying attention to the importance of Korean dolmens in terms of the whole cultural history of mankind. Dolmens in Ganghwa (Incheon), Hwasun (Jeollanam-do), and Gochang (Jeollabukdo) were listed as the UNESCO World Heritage sites in 2000. In addition, many experts have been studying the correlation between dolmens in South Korea and ones in Europe and India, other than the reasons why dolmens are concentrated on the Korean Peninsula.

Towards the end of the Gojoseon Period, tribal states came into being one after another in Manchuria and on the Korean Peninsula. Buyeo was established in the plains along the Songhua River in Manchuria and Jilin. The people of Buyeo grew crops and raised livestock, including horses. They also made furs. By the early 1st century CE, they started calling their main leader the King and actively engaged with other countries, even entering into diplomatic relations with China. By the end of the 3rd century, Buyeo had been incorporated into Goguryeo. The people of Buyeo held an annual festival called Yeonggo in December. During the festival, they held a sacrificial rite for heaven, sang and danced together, and released prisoners.

Buyeo fell apart during the establishment of the regional confederation, but the factions that founded Goguryeo and Baekje took pride in their status as the inheritors of Buyeo. Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) states that Gojumong, who founded Goguryeo in 37 BCE, was originally from Buyeo. Goguryeo prospered greatly through victorious wars in areas close to Baekdusan Mountain and along the Amnokgang (Yalu) River. Right after its foundation, Goguryeo conquered a number of small states in the area and moved its capital to Gungnaeseong (Tonggu) near the Amnokgang River. Through many wars, it drove away the factions loyal to the Han dynasty and expanded its territory as far as Liaodong in the west and to the northeast of the Korean Peninsula. It became a powerful state, exerting control over Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula.

There was also a number of small states, such as Okjeo and Dongye, in present-day Hamgyeong-do and the northern parts of Gangwon-do along the east coast of the Korean Peninsula. Located in outlying areas, they did not develop very rapidly. Okjeo offered tributes such as salt and fish to Goguryeo. Dongye held a sacrificial rite for heaven called Mucheon in October to build a spirit of collaboration by singing and dancing together. Its specialties included dangung (an archery bow) and gwahama (a horse small enough to pass unhindered beneath fruit trees). These two states were also incorporated into Goguryeo.

The area south of Gojoseon was occupied by a large group of small states including Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. Mahan was a confederacy of fifty-four small states (composed of 100,000 households in total) located in present-day Gyeonggi-do, Chungcheong-do, and Jeolla-do. Byeonhan was located in presentday Gimhae and Masan while Jinhan located in present-day Daegu and Gyeongju. Each of the latter two was composed of 40,000–50,000 households. The three mini-states were collectively known as Samhan (Three Han States). The people of Samhan held rites of sacrifice for heaven in May and October. On such occasions, they gathered together to enjoy liquor, food, singing and dancing.

Along with the spread of Iron Age culture and the development of farming skills, powerful states such as Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla gradually were established in Manchuria and on the Korean Peninsula.

Goguryeo was the first of the three Kingdoms to firmly establish itself as a sovereign country. It started expanding its territory in the late 1st century and strengthened a king-centered ruling system by the late 2nd century. By the early 4th century, King Micheon of Goguryeo had driven away factions loyal to the Han dynasty from the Korean Peninsula.

In 372 (the 2nd year of King Sosurim’s reign), Goguryeo adopted Buddhism and promulgated a code of law in an effort to establish a proper governing system. It also established Taehak, a Confucian educational institute. King Gwanggaeto the Great, a son of King Sosurim, drove away the Khitan, Sushen, and Dongbuyeo and expanded his territory into Manchuria. He also captured many of Baekje’s fortresses in the south and helped Silla overcome a crisis by driving away Wako invaders.

Baekje was established in 18 BCE jointly by the people who lived along the Hangang River, people originating from Buyeo and Goguryeo, and migrants from elsewhere. By the mid-3rd century, during the reign of King Goi, Baekje had seized complete control over the areas along the Hangang River and established a solid system of political governance by accommodating the advanced culture of China. By the mid-4th century, King Geunchogo occupied Mahan and expanded the territory as far as the south coast of present-day Jeollanam-do. Along the northern border, Baekje confronted Goguryeo in a bid to take control of presentday Hwanghae-do. It also exerted control over Gaya in the south. At that time, Baekje’s territory included present-day Gyeonggi-do, Chungcheong-do, Jeolla-do, the middle reaches of the Nakdonggang River, Gangwon-do, and Hwanghae-do.

Silla originated in Saroguk, one of the mini states of Jinhan. It was established as a kingdom in 57 BCE by the natives of present-day Gyeongju and people from other regions. Those with the family names Park, Seok, and Kim acceded to the throne in turn. By around the 4th century, the Kingdom occupied most of the areas east of the Nakdonggang River. During the reign of King Naemul, Silla allowed Goguryeo troops to remain within the Kingdom to help drive away Wako invaders. It also adopted Chinese culture and civilization through Goguryeo.

In Byeonhan, located along the lower reaches of the Nakdonggang River, the Gaya Confederation emerged, with Geumgwan Gaya playing a leading role. The confederation developed an Iron Age culture and exerted considerable influence on areas along the Nakdonggang River. Gaya states started rice farming early on, thus its farming culture flourishing. It also traded actively with Wa (Japan) and Lelang, taking advantage of an abundance of iron and convenient sea routes.

Unification of the Three Kingdoms under Silla

By the 5th century, each of the three Kingdoms (Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla) on the Korean Peninsula was committed to a policy for territorial expansion under a firmly established governing apparatus centered on the King. In Goguryeo, King Jangsu, a son of King Gwanggaeto, moved the capital to Pyongyang in 427. He occupied Hanseong (present-day Seoul), the capital of Baekje, and areas along the Hangang River, expanding his territory down to present-day Jungnyeong Pass (Danyang and Yeongju) and Namyang-myeon, Gyeonggi-do. Thanks to this territorial expansion, Goguryeo established a colossal empire in Manchuria and on the Korean Peninsula, dominating as a power in Northeast Asia.

After yielding the areas along the Hangang River to Goguryeo, Baekje moved its capital to Ungjin (present-day Gongju) in 475. It strived to rebuild its strength to regain the lost territory. King Dongseong confronted Goguryeo by reinforcing the alliance with Silla. King Muryeong strengthened local control in order to lay a solid foundation for prosperity. King Seong, a son of King Muryeong, relocated the Baekje capital to Sabi (present-day Buyeo), strove to reform the ruling system, and regained control over areas along the Hangang River in an alliance with Silla.

As for Silla, Saroguk changed its name to Silla in the early 6th century, reformed its political system, and reorganized the administrative zones, including the capital, during the reign of King Jijeung. King Jijeung incorporated Usanguk (composed of present-day Ulleungdo and Dokdo Islands) into the territory of Silla in 512. King Beopheung stabilized the ruling system as a centralized state by promulgating a code of law, setting up rules about official robes, and adopting Buddhism as official state religion. He also incorporated Geumgwan Gaya in a drive to expand his territory. King Jinheung reorganized the Hwarangdo into a national organization and expanded the territory considerably. He seized lands along the Hangang River from Baekje, conquered Daegaya in Goryeong, wrested areas along the Nakdonggang River, and expanded the territory as far as to Hamheung along the east coast.

In 612, the Sui dynasty in China, which unified all of mainland China into one state, attacked Goguryeo, mobilizing more than a million troops. General Eulji Mundeok of Goguryeo drowned most of the Chinese invaders in the Salsu River (present-day Cheongcheongang River), which is called the Battle of Salsu. The Sui dynasty sustained enormous damage due to the failure of the campaign and fell to the Tang dynasty in 618. Tang China also attacked Goguryeo several times but failed at each attempt

In the meantime, Baekje frequently attacked Silla. Silla unsuccessfully sought the assistance of Goguryeo, and then invaded in an alliance with Tang China. Silla troops led by Kim Yu-sin defeated an elite force of Baekje troops commanded by Gyebaek in Hwangsanbeol and marched to Sabi, the capital of Baekje. Troops of Tang China invaded Baekje through the estuary of the Geumgang River. Finally, Baekje surrendered to the Silla-Tang forces in 660.

The Silla-Tang forces then attacked Goguryeo, once the most powerful Kingdom in Northeast Asia. However, Goguryeo had depleted its resources in two large-scale wars against the two dynasties of China, and fell in 668.

Upon conquering Baekje and Goguryeo in alliance with Silla, Tang China attempted to exert control over the entire Korean Peninsula including Silla by establishing the Ungjin Commandery in Baekje, the Protectorate-General to Pacify the East in Goguryeo, and the Gyerim Territory Area Command even in Silla. Silla waged a war against Tang, defeated its navy in Gibeolpo near the estuary of the Geumgang River, and drove all of Tang’s forces out of the peninsula, thus accomplishing the important feat of unifying the Korean Peninsula in 676.

With the unification of the three Kingdoms on the Korean Peninsula in 668, Silla enjoyed a marked expansion of both its territory and population. Unified Silla entered a period of dazzling economic development. It mended fences with Tang China. The two countries saw vigorous exchanges between traders, monks, and Confucian scholars. Silla exported gold and silver handiworks and ginseng to Tang and imported books, ceramic ware, satin silk fabric, clothes, and craftwork products. Goods from Central Asia were introduced to Silla, and traders from that region paid visits to Silla via the Silk Road and sea routes.

The major ports of Silla included Ulsan and Danghangseong (present-day Hwaseong, Gyeonggi-do), through which numerous goods from Central and Southern Asia were imported. In the early 9th century, General Jang Bo-go of Silla established a forward base in Cheonghaejin (present-day Wando, Jeollanamdo) to deal with the pirate menace and encourage trade with nearby countries including China and Japan.

In the meantime, the survivors of the fallen Kingdom of Goguryeo resisted Tang China’s rule. In 698, a group of them led by Dae Jo-yeong, jointly with the Mohe, founded Balhae near present-day Dongmiaoshan in Jilin province, China. The new Kingdom would eventually confront Silla in the south.

Balhae started expanding its territory and regained control over most of the former territory of Goguryeo. During the reign of King Mu, Balhae controlled the northern parts of Manchuria. King Mun reformed the system of governance and moved the capital to Sanggyeong (present-day Ningan-xian, Heilongjiang province) in about 755. The people of Balhae took pride in their Goguryeo inheritance. Letters held in Japan show that the kings of Balhae referred to themselves as the Kings of Goguryeo. Balhae eventually grew so large and strong that the people of Tang China called it Haedong Seongguk (“prosperous country in the east”), but it fell in 926 as a result of an eruption of Baekdusan Mountain and an invasion of the Khitan people.

By the late 8th century, Silla had been weakened by an internal struggle for power among the nobility; by the 10th century, leaders of powerful local factions, such as Gyeon Hwon and Gungye, had established their own regimes. In 892, Gyeon Hwon established a Kingdom named Later Baekje, with Wansanju as its capital, and gained control of present-day Jeolla-do and Chungcheong-do.

In 901, Gungye, a member of the Silla royal family, founded Later Goguryeo in Songak (present-day Gaeseong), exerting control over present-day Gangwon-do and Gyeonggi-do. He expanded the territory, reformed the ruling system, and relocated the capital to Cheorwon. He also changed the name of the country to Taebong.

Gungye lost the support of his people while exerting control over local leaders and strengthening his claim to the throne. In 918, he was driven away by Wang Geon, a local leader from Songak. Wang Geon changed the name of the country to Goryeo, announced that the country would inherit Goguryeo, and moved the capital to Songak. Goryeo remained hostile to Later Baekje while actively promoting a policy of engaging Silla. In 935, Unified Silla was peacefully incorporated into Goryeo. Following a power struggle among leaders in Later Baekje, Gyeon Hwon surrendered to Wang Geon. In 936, Later Baekje fell to Goryeo. Thus, Wang Geon unified the Later Three Kingdoms on the Korean Peninsula.

Goryeo adopted Confucianism as its political ideology and established an effective education system by founding the Gukjagam (a national higher education institution) and numerous hyanggyo (local private schools). Buddhism also exerted considerable influence over Goryeo society in general. The Kingdom adopted a more tolerant approach towards the acceptance of other religions, as indicated by the rites called Yeondeunghoe (Lotus Lantern Festival) and Palgwanhoe (Festival of the Eight Vows), in which prayers were offered for blessing, based on a syncretic mix of folk religions and Buddhism.

Goryeo engaged in brisk trade with many countries, including the Song dynasty. Many traders from Song, Central Asia, Arabia, Southeast Asia and Japan travelled to Byeongnando, a gateway to the capital, Gaeseong. Traders from Song sold satin, silk and medicinal herbs, while traders from Goryeo sold hemp cloth and ginseng. Gems such as ivory, crystal, amber were imported from Arabia. Finally, the name Korea originated from Goryeo during this period.

The Goryeo dynasty gave birth to splendid culture. Specifically, the Goryeo celadon made by the inlaying technique attests to its unique artistry unparalleled elsewhere in the world at that time. The Tripitaka Koreana or Palman Daejanggyeong is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka, or Buddhist scriptures. Carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks, it is the essence of Buddhist culture and the pinnacle of achievement of wooden printing block technology in the Goryeo period. The world’s first metal printing types were also invented during the Goryeo period. According to the pertinent records, the people of Goryeo invented metal printing types over 200 years earlier than Johannes Gutenberg in Europe. A book entitled Jikji (Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings) was printed in 1377 with metal printing types, 78 years ahead of its European homologue printed in 1455. Jikji is kept at the National Library of France and was registered as a Memory of the World in 2001.

War with the Mongols

In the early 13th century, the situation in China changed abruptly. The Mongols conquered the Jin dynasty of China and expanded their influence into the Korean Peninsula. They invaded Goryeo seven times between 1231 and 1259. In an effort to resist these attacks, Goryeo moved its capital to Ganghwa. Even ordinary people and slaves fought against the invaders. In 1259, a peace agreement was signed between the two countries. The Yuan dynasty of China established by the Mongols accepted Goryeo’s six conditions for peace, including a guarantee of the continued existence of the Goryeo dynasty and Mongol troops’ immediate withdrawal from the Korean Peninsula. The agreement was a result of Goryeo’s persistent resistance to the Mongols’ plan to bring Goryeo under its direct control.

Despite the agreement with the Mongols, a group of Goryeo troops called Sambyeolcho continued to fight them, moving their base of operations to Jindo and then to Jejudo. They continued to fight until 1273. Their 42-year campaign of resistance against the Mongols, the world’s strongest power at that time, attests to their perseverance and indomitable spirit. However, the national land was devastated and people’s lives were destroyed due to the long years of war. The Mongols destroyed many precious cultural heritage sites and properties, including the nine-tier pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple.

Towards the end of the 14th century, Goryeo found itself in a difficult situation due to internal and external problems, including a struggle for power among the nobility and incursions by red-turbaned bandits and Wako pirates. At that time, General Yi Seong-gye had become popular among the people for his role in driving away foreign invaders. He overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and founded a new dynasty, Joseon. As the first King Taejo of Joseon, he chose Hanyang (present day Seoul) – judged to be a propitious spot according to the principles of feng shui – as the capital of the new dynasty. He also ordered the construction of Gyeongbokgung Palace and the Jongmyo shrine, as well as roads and markets. The new capital, located in the center of the Korean Peninsula, was easily accessible via the Hangang River, which flowed directly through its heart.

King Taejong, the third king and son of the founder of the dynasty, made a significant contribution to stabilizing the centralized system of governance. He adopted a system under the law of hopae (identification tags) to figure out the population, and launched the major executive bodies called the Six Ministries of Joseon: Personnel (Ijo), Taxation (Hojo), Rites (Yejo), Military Affairs (Byeongjo), Punishments (Hyeongjo), and Public Works (Gongjo), all of which had to report directly to their king. King Sejong, the fourth king and a son of King Taejong, ushered in an era of great political, social, and cultural prosperity. Scholars at the Jiphyeonjeon (Hall of Worthies) developed strong and effective policies. During the reigns of Sejo, Yejong, and Seongjong, the Gyeongguk daejeon (National Code) was drawn up with the aim of establishing a long-lasting ruling system.

The Creation of Hangeul

Koreans had used the Traditional Chinese characters for a writing system for many centuries. Idu and Hyangchal, systems for writing the spoken word, using Chinese characters, had been developed, but they left much to be desired. Hangeul (the Korean alphabet), was created by King Sejong in 1443 and was promulgated as the national writing system in 1446. The shapes of the Korean alphabet were based on the shapes made by the human vocal apparatus during pronunciation. Many scholars have stated that Hangeul is the most scientific and easy-to-learn writing system in the world. It contributed to drastically enhancing communication between the people and the government, and played a decisive role in becoming a culturally advanced country.

Development of Science and Technology

During the Joseon period, the country’s science and technology developed remarkably. The Jagyeongnu (clepsydra), Angbuilgu (sundial), and Honcheonui (armillary sphere) were all invented in the early period of the dynasty. A rain gauge, the first of its particular kind in the world, was used to measure precipitation. Devices for land surveying and mapmaking were also made. During the reign of King Taejo, the Cheonsang yeolcha bunya jido (Celestial Chart) was made based on a previous version drawn up during the Goguryeo period. During the reign of King Sejong, Chiljeongsan (meaning the calculation of the motions of the seven celestial determinants) was made on the basis of the Shoushili calendar of China and the Islamic calendar of Arabia. Noticeable advances were made in the sphere of medical science. Hyangyak jipseongbang (Collection of Native Prescriptions for Saving Lives) and Uibang yuchwi (Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions) were compiled regarding Korean native medicines, and treatments. Metal printing types, such as Gyemija and Gabinja, were making it possible to publish many books.

Joseon’s Foreign Relations

Joseon maintained friendly relations with the Ming dynasty of China. The two countries exchanged royal envoys every year and engaged in busy cultural and economic exchanges. Joseon also accepted Japan’s request for bilateral trade by opening the ports of Busan, Jinhae, and Ulsan. In 1443, Joseon signed the Gyehae Treaty with the clan of Tsushima Island for limited bilateral trade. and Joseon also traded with other Asian countries such as Ryukyu, Siam, and Java.

Development of Handcraft Skills

Ceramic ware is perhaps the most representative handcraft of the Joseon period. Grayish-blue-powdered celadon or white porcelain was widely used at the royal court or government offices. By about the 16th century, Joseon’s ceramic production skills had reached their zenith. Its white porcelain typically exhibited clean, plain shapes based on the tradition established during the Goryeo period. They were suited to the aristocratic taste of the Confucian scholars.

Imjin Waeran (Japanese Invasion of 1592)

Throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, Joseon maintained good relations with Japan. In the 16th century, however, Japan called for a larger share of the bilateral trade, but Joseon refused to comply with the request. The Japanese threw the Joseon society into turmoil by causing disturbances: the Disturbance of the Three Ports, also known as Sampo Waeran, in 1510 and Eulmyo Waebyeon (Japanese pirates’ disturbance) in 1555. In Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi brought the 120-yearlong Sengoku period (Age of Warring States) to a conclusion and unified the country. Then, in 1592, he invaded Joseon with around 200,000 troops, with the aim of dissipating local lords’ strength and stabilizing his rule in Japan. The war lasted for 7 years until 1598, which is called the Japanese invasions of Korea of 1592–1598 or Imjin War.

Feeling threatened by the invading Japanese troops, King Seonjo of Joseon fled to Uiju, close to the Ming dynasty, and asked Ming to come to his aid. The Japanese invaders marched into the northern provinces of Joseon. Korean militias started fighting against the invaders here and there across the country. It is particularly noteworthy that Korean naval forces led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin won one victory after another against the invaders and defended the nation’s breadbasket in Jeolla-do, and thus blocked the Japanese supply lines, thereby demoralizing the Japanese army. The Japanese forces pulled out of Korea, but invaded Joseon again in 1597. Although Admiral Yi Sun-sin was left with only thirteen warships, he won a devastating victory against the Japanese fleet of 133 ships. The sea battle waged in the Strait of Myeongnyang was one of the greatest military engagements of all time.

Following the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the Japanese invaders returned home. During the seven-year war, many cultural properties in Joseon, including Bulguksa Temple, were destroyed. The Japanese took away books, printing types, and works of art from Joseon. With these spoils of war, the Japanese were able to enhance scholarship and the arts in their own country, while potters whom the Japanese troops abducted from Joseon helped Japan develop its own china culture.

Development of Grassroots Culture

In the late Joseon period, commerce and industry entered a period of rapid development. Many children could receive education at private schools in their local neighborhood. With these improvements in the quality of life of the people, they began to enjoy diverse entertainments. Stories written in easily understood Hangeul, as opposed to literary works published in Chinese, were widely distributed. Pansori (a genre of musical storytelling) and mask dances developed into the representative genres of the grassroots culture. In the late 19th century, Sin Jae-hyo adapted and rearranged pansori saseol (stories), which is today called the five madang of pansori: Chunhyangga (Song of Chunhyang), Simcheongga (Song of Sim Cheong), Heungboga (Song of Heungbo), Jeokbyeokga (Song of Red Cliff), and Sugungga (Song of the Rabbit and the Turtle). In addition, masked dance-dramas such as tallori and sandaenori enjoyed great popularity among ordinary people.

With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, capitalism developed in Europe and large businesses came into being. European countries expanded their colonies in Asia and Africa. By the mid-19th century, the western powers had forced the Qing dynasty of China and Japan to open their doors and then asked the same of Joseon, but Joseon duly rejected such requests. Joseon did not yield to pressure applied in the form of naval attacks in 1866 (by the French) and 1871 (by the Americans).

In the ensuing period, the pressure did not stop. In 1875, Japan dispatched the battleship Unyo Maru to attack Ganghwado and Yeongjongdo Islands, demanding that Joseon open its doors to foreign trade missions. Ultimately, Joseon was forced to sign the highly unequal, one-sided Korean-Japanese Treaty, or Ganghwa Treaty (1876) with Japan in 1876 under military threat.

Subsequently, imperialist powers, including Japan, vied with each other to pillage Joseon’s resources. In 1897, Joseon changed its name to the Korean Empire (Daehan Jeguk) and pushed ahead with reforms and an open-door policy, but it was too late. Japan soon won major victories in its wars against the Qing dynasty and Russia, emerged as a strong power in Northeast Asia, and took steps to annex Joseon. Many Korean patriots, including Ahn Jung-geun, resisted such a plan, but to no avail. In August 1910, the Korean Empire was formally annexed by the Empire of Japan.

During the colonial period, the Japanese pillaged Joseon’s resources, banned the use of the Korean language–even going so far in 1939 as to require Koreans to change their personal names to Japanese style surnames and given names under the Name Order, and conscripted Koreans into their work force or as uniformed soldiers in the Pacific War. Koreans engaged in persistent struggles to regain their independence. They organized numerous clandestine organizations to fight the Japanese within the country such as Joseon National Sovereignty Restoration Group and The Korea Liberation Corps. They also established forward bases for the independence movement in China, Russia, and the United States and led unprecedentedly peaceful demonstrations. In March 1919, Korean leaders announced the Declaration of Independence. Students and ordinary people staged street demonstrations across the country shouting their motto, “Long Live Korean Independence!” The movement spread to the Koreans resisting in Manchuria, the Maritime Provinces of Siberia, the United States, Europe, and even to Japan. Following the March 1st Movement, organizations representing Koreans were established in Seoul, the Maritime Province of Siberia, and Shanghai. Of these, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, which was established in Shanghai, China, is the country’s first democratic republican government; it was equipped with a modern Constitution and a political system that separated the three basic branches (executive, legislature and judicial) of government.

Koreans also carried out armed struggles against the Japanese. In the 1920s, more than 30 Korean independence army units engaged in resistance activities in Manchuria and the Maritime Provinces of Siberia. For example, in June 1920, the Battle of Fengwudong was a battle that occurred in Fengwutung, Jilin province, China between Japanese forces and Korean independence militias led by Hong Beom-do to a big victory. Another is the Battle of Qingshanli, which was fought over six days in October 1920 between the Imperial Japanese Army and the Northern Military Administration Office Army led by Kim Jwa-jin along with other Korean armed groups. They won a great victory against Japanese troops in Helongxian, Manchuria.

In 1940, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (PGK) organized the Korean Liberation Army in Chungqing, integrating many scattered volunteer independence armies and militias in Manchuria. The PGK declared war against Japan and dispatched troops to the front lines in India and Myanmar to fight on the side of the Allied Forces. Some young Koreans received special training from a special military unit of the United States to better equip themselves to attack Japanese forces in Korea. On August 15, 1945, Koreans finally received what they had looked forward to for so long: the country’s liberation as a result of Japan’s surrender in the Pacific War. U.S. and Soviet troops were deployed to the south and north of the 38th parallel, respectively to disarm Japanese troops remaining on the Korean Peninsula.

On May 10, 1948, the first general election was held in a democratic manner in South Korea under the UN’s supervision to elect the 198 members of the National Assembly. In July of the same year, the Constitution was enacted and Rhee Syngman and Yi Si-yeong, two independence fighters deeply respected by Koreans, were elected as the country’s first President and Vice President, respectively. On August 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea (ROK) was formally established as a liberal democracy, which inherited the legitimacy of the PGK. The UN recognized the government of the ROK as the only legitimate government on the Korean Peninsula.

However, to the north of the 38th parallel, a general election under UN supervision could not be carried out due to the Soviet Union’s opposition. On September 9, 1948, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) was proclaimed as a communist country, and Kim Il-sung, who had served as an officer of the Soviet Russian Army, was sworn in as the President. Amid the confrontation between a free democracy in the south and a communist dictatorship in the north, the ROK government led by President Rhee Syngman was burdened with many issues such as establishing domestic order, eliminating vestiges of Japanese imperialism, and overcoming ideological confrontations between the left and the right.

On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops armed with Soviet-made tanks and fighters invaded the South, thus triggering an all-out war. The UN Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion and published a resolution recommending that its member states provide military assistance to South Korea. When the tide of the war turned against the North with the intervention of the UN Forces, the Chinese Red Army intervened in the war on the North’s side. The two sides engaged in fierce battles until, on July 27, 1953, the two sides finally signed the armistice agreement. President Rhee Syngman did not sign the agreement, calling strongly for the prolongation of the war with the goal of unifying the entire country in the South’s favor.

The three-year-long internecine war started by the Communists reduced the entire Korean Peninsula to rubble. Millions of troops and civilians were killed. Most of the country’s industrial facilities were destroyed. South Korea became one of the poorest countries in the world. However, the war taught South Koreans the preciousness of freedom. The experience provided the foundation that inspired patriotism in the hearts of young students and uniformed soldiers alike, and became the principal engine of the country’s modernization.

President Rhee Syngman strengthened his authoritarian rule. In 1960, the ruling Liberal Party rigged the Presidential election. Young students took to the streets in protest. The situation deteriorated when many demonstrators were shot by the police, which led to massive protests called the April 19 Revolution. President Rhee Syngman announced his step-down and took refuge in Hawaii. Shortly thereafter, the Constitution was amended, and a cabinet system and the bicameral National Assembly were adopted. Under the new constitution, the regime led by Prime Minister Jang Myeon was launched, but the political situation became extremely fragile amid political struggles and continued street demonstrations by students.

In May 1961, a group of young army officers led by General Park Chung-hee seized power in a coup d’état. In the presidential election held on October 15, 1963, after two years of military rule, Park Chung-hee, having retired from the military, was elected as President and inaugurated in December that same year. The government led by President Park set up a 5-year economic development plan under the slogan of “modernization of the fatherland” and achieved rapid economic growth by implementing an export-oriented policy.

Observers called it “the Miracle on the Hangang River.” The country vigorously pushed ahead with the development of national land, including the construction of the Gyeongbu Expressway and subway lines in large cities. The country also carried out the Saemaeul Undong (New Community Movement), turning the impoverished agricultural society into a country focused mainly on manufacturing.

Since the South Korean government was established in 1948, the country has transformed itself from one of the most impoverished countries in the world to an economic powerhouse and an exemplar of liberal democracy.

When the government announced the Yusin (Revitalization Reform) in October 1972, which was designed to extend the term of the incumbent government after eighteen years of dictatorship, students and ordinary people continued to engage in the democratization movement. After the assassination of President Park on October 26, 1979, a new group of army officers led by General Chun Doohwan (Singunbu) seized power through a coup d’état. Singunbu suppressed by force the voices calling for democratization, including the May 18 Democratization Movement. Chun Doo-hwan was sworn in as the President and ruled with an authoritarian grip. The Chun Doo-hwan government concentrated on economic stabilization, successfully bringing inflated prices under control. Under his leadership, the country accomplished continued economic growth.

On June 29, 1987, Roh Tae-woo, a presidential hopeful of the ruling party, made a special announcement to the effect that he would accept the people’s request for democratization and direct election of the President. On December 16, 1987, he was elected to a five-year term as President and sworn in as President on February 25, 1988. The Roh Tae-woo administration established diplomatic relations with Communist countries including the Soviet Union, China, and those in Eastern Europe. During his term, the two Koreas joined the UN simultaneously on September 17, 1991.

The Kim Young-sam government, which was inaugurated in 1993, strove to eliminate corruption by making it a rule for high-ranking public officials to register all their assets and by prohibiting the use of false names in all financial transactions. The level of transparency in business transactions was considerably enhanced by this measure. The government also implemented the local autonomy system in full force. President Kim Dae-jung took office in 1998 and his government succeeded in overcoming the foreign exchange crisis that had hit the country one year earlier, and strove to develop both democracy and the market economy. In its relations with North Korea, the government adopted the Sunshine Policy. On June 15, 2000, the leaders of the two Koreas met at a summit held in Pyongyang, North Korea, and made a joint statement. Then, the two Koreas established a system of reconciliation and cooperation, and agreed on the reunion of dispersed family members, the connection of the Gyeongui and Donghae railroad lines, the revitalization of unification movements led by the private sector, and the expansion of economic cooperation, including sightseeing in Geumgangsan Mountain.

The Roh Moo-hyun government, which was inaugurated in 2003, concentrated on three leading objectives: the realization of democracy with the participation of the people, balanced social development, and the realization of peace and prosperity in Northeast Asia. The government also held the second summit between the leaders of the two Koreas in Pyongyang on October 4, 2007 and the same year signed an FTA with the United States.

The Lee Myung-bak administration, which was inaugurated in 2008, announced five leading indicators in a bid for the establishment of a new development system with the focus on changes and practicality. The government stressed that it would be a government that would serve the people. It also made efforts to streamline the government organization, privatize public corporations equipped with higher efficiency, and reform administrative regulations. Other policies adopted by the government included the forging of a creative alliance with the United States as befits the 21st century, and the creation of a global Korea under the South-North Economic Community.

With the election of the first female president of the Republic of Korea in December 2012, the Park Geun-hye administration was launched, presenting a new vision of the people’s happiness and the nation’s development. Her government also stressed the need for implementing the creative economy saying, “A creative economy based on science technologies and ICT is a challenge that we must take on for our economic breakthrough and the only growth engine of the Korean economy.”

Launched in May 2017, the Moon Jae-in administration unveiled its national vision: “A Nation of the People, a Just Republic of Korea,” which signified the embodiment of the spirit of the candlelight rallies, in conjunction with five policy goals to achieve the national vision: a Government of the People, an Economy Pursuing Mutual Prosperity, a Nation Taking Responsibility for Each Individual, Well-balanced Development across Every Region, and a Peaceful and Prosperous Korean Peninsula. As part of these efforts, the government worked to eradicate authoritarian culture, communicate with the people, and restore democracy. It also created more jobs, reduced the incidence of irregular work, and increased the minimum wage in efforts to realize a “people-oriented economy.”

Moreover, the Moon Jae-in administration paved the way to ease tension on the Korean Peninsula and open an era of peace by holding inter-Korean summits as well as South Korea–US and South Korea–China summits. In the face of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the government also focused on building infrastructure, improving related regulations, and securing key technologies for future generations.